Wednesday, March 18, 2020

Free Essays on Positivitism

Legal positivism is the thesis that the existence and content of law depends on social facts and not on its merits. The English jurist John Austin (1790-1859) formulated it thus: â€Å"The existence of law is one thing; its merit and demerit another. Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry.† (1832, p. 157) The positivist thesis does not say that law's merits are unintelligible, unimportant, or peripheral to the philosophy of law. It says that they do not determine whether laws or legal systems exist. Whether a society has a legal system depends on the presence of certain structures of governance, not on the extent to which it satisfies ideals of justice, democracy, or the rule of law. What laws are in force in that system depends on what social standards its officials recognize as authoritative; for example, legislative enactments, judicial decisions, or social customs. The fact that a policy wo uld be just, wise, efficient, or prudent is never sufficient reason for thinking that it is actually the law, and the fact that it is unjust, unwise, inefficient or imprudent is never sufficient reason for doubting it. According to positivism, law is a matter of what has been posited (ordered, decided, practiced, tolerated, etc.); as we might say in a more modern idiom, positivism is the view that law is a social construction. Austin thought the thesis â€Å"simple and glaring.† While it is probably the dominant view among analytically inclined philosophers of law, it is also the subject of competing interpretations together with persistent criticisms and misunderstandings.... Free Essays on Positivitism Free Essays on Positivitism Legal positivism is the thesis that the existence and content of law depends on social facts and not on its merits. The English jurist John Austin (1790-1859) formulated it thus: â€Å"The existence of law is one thing; its merit and demerit another. Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry.† (1832, p. 157) The positivist thesis does not say that law's merits are unintelligible, unimportant, or peripheral to the philosophy of law. It says that they do not determine whether laws or legal systems exist. Whether a society has a legal system depends on the presence of certain structures of governance, not on the extent to which it satisfies ideals of justice, democracy, or the rule of law. What laws are in force in that system depends on what social standards its officials recognize as authoritative; for example, legislative enactments, judicial decisions, or social customs. The fact that a policy wo uld be just, wise, efficient, or prudent is never sufficient reason for thinking that it is actually the law, and the fact that it is unjust, unwise, inefficient or imprudent is never sufficient reason for doubting it. According to positivism, law is a matter of what has been posited (ordered, decided, practiced, tolerated, etc.); as we might say in a more modern idiom, positivism is the view that law is a social construction. Austin thought the thesis â€Å"simple and glaring.† While it is probably the dominant view among analytically inclined philosophers of law, it is also the subject of competing interpretations together with persistent criticisms and misunderstandings....

Sunday, March 1, 2020

An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing

An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis testing is a topic at the heart of statistics. This technique belongs to a realm known as inferential statistics. Researchers from all sorts of different areas, such as psychology, marketing, and medicine, formulate hypotheses or claims about a population being studied. The ultimate goal of the research is to determine the validity of these claims. Carefully designed statistical experiments obtain sample data from the population. The data is in turn used to test the accuracy of a hypothesis concerning a population. The Rare Event Rule Hypothesis tests are based upon the field of mathematics known as probability. Probability gives us a way to quantify how likely it is for an event to occur. The underlying assumption for all inferential statistics deals with rare events, which is why probability is used so extensively. The rare event rule states that if an assumption is made and the probability of a certain observed event is very small, then the assumption is most likely incorrect. The basic idea here is that we test a claim by distinguishing between two different things: An event that easily occurs by chance.An event that is highly unlikely to occur by chance. If a highly unlikely event occurs, then we explain this by stating that a rare event really did take place, or that the assumption we started with was not true. Prognosticators and Probability As an example to intuitively grasp the ideas behind hypothesis testing, we’ll consider the following story. It’s a beautiful day outside so you decided to go on a walk. While you are walking you are confronted by a mysterious stranger. â€Å"Do not be alarmed,† he says, â€Å"this is your lucky day. I am a seer of seers and a prognosticator of prognosticators. I can predict the future, and do it with greater accuracy than anyone else. In fact, 95% of the time I’m right. For a mere $1000, I will give you the winning lottery ticket numbers for the next ten weeks. You‘ll be almost sure of winning once, and probably several times.† This sounds too good to be true, but you are intrigued. â€Å"Prove it,† you reply. â€Å"Show me that you really can predict the future, then I’ll consider your offer.† â€Å"Of course. I can‘t give you any winning lottery numbers for free though. But I will show you my powers as follows. In this sealed envelope is a sheet of paper numbered 1 through 100, with heads or tails written after each of them. When you go home, flip a coin 100 times and record the results in the order that you get them. Then open the envelope and compare the two lists. My list will accurately match at least 95 of your coin tosses.† You take the envelope with a skeptical look. â€Å"I will be here tomorrow at this same time if you decide to take me up on my offer.† As you walk back home, you assume that the stranger has thought up a creative way to con people out of their money. Nevertheless, when you get back home, you flip a coin and write down which tosses give you heads, and which ones are tails. Then you open the envelope and compare the two lists. If the lists only match in 49 places, you would conclude that the stranger is at best deluded and at worse conducting some sort of scam. After all, chance alone would result in being correct about one half of the time. If this is the case, you would probably change your walking route for a few weeks. On the other hand, what if the lists matched 96 times? The likelihood of this occurring by chance is extremely small. Due to the fact that predicting 96 of 100 coin tosses is exceptionally improbable, you conclude that your assumption about the stranger was incorrect and he can indeed predict the future. The Formal Procedure This example illustrates the idea behind hypothesis testing and is a good introduction to further study. The exact procedure requires specialized terminology and a step by step procedure, but the thinking is the same. The rare event rule provides the ammunition to reject one hypothesis and accept an alternate one.

Friday, February 14, 2020

Organizational development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Organizational development - Essay Example They are applied to understand the aforementioned elements (Armstrong, 2009). After using such strategic concepts, the following factors and their effects on Aldi are being discussed. Competitor Power Competitors may look to poach the employees of Aldi through head hunting. This is a very common threat faced by most of the organisations. You invest so much of money to train and develop an employee and suddenly he or she may be poached by one of your competitors leaving an organisational gap. In this case, the competitor might be offering more attractive compensation to the employees, therefore, making the employees to leave, especially if the company lacks enough finances to upgrade its employees’ compensation (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000). Economic Uncertainty Economic uncertainty may lead Aldi to freeze their recruitment temporarily or even release some of the existing employees, or it may lead them to cut short on some of the employee benefits leading to a state of organisa tional unrest. When this happens, the trained and skilled employees will lose their jobs in Aldi, leaving Aldi with few employees, therefore, a shortage of skills that previously were present occurs. This will be felt in the workload of the company, which will be demanding for the employees left behind to handle (Torrington, Hall & Taylor, 2011). However, this will be beyond the control of Aldi. Talent Shortage At some point of time the Aldi may come across a phase when demand is greater than supply, i.e. there is need for quality manpower but there is a lack of adequate supply. Talent shortage may be for senior executive position or for new comers (Bamberger & Meshoulam, 2000). This can become challenging to the organization, since more skills and talent will be required to address new demands in the market. This might lead to poor performance of the company. Industry-centric Some organizations are more affected by employee turnover than others. This is something they cannot contro l because of their nature and specialization. These kinds of organizations are those that deal with tourism, healthcare, food, and retail industries. Aldi, being a retail company therefore, puts it in a situation whereby most of its employees could leave. Most retail companies do not require employees who are highly skilled, like other professional careers. Therefore, this is Aldi’s nature, which is beyond the organization’s control. A good number of employees might leave Aldi, since there are many other retail companies, where they could get opportunities too. Additionally, employees working in jobs that require less or simple skills, such as retailing, are more likely to switch jobs (Armstrong, 2009). b) Aspects of Corporate and Human Resources Strategy Nowadays, it is widely believed that human resources of an organization is influential in the organization’s productivity levels. The human resources can as well be the source of an organization’s compet itive advantage over its competitors. This is achieved when the human resources has adopted effective policies for managing people, who are the employees, and these policies have been integrated with the culture of the organization, as well as the strategic business planning of the organization. With this, Aldi, as an organization, can also make use of different aspects of human resources and corporate strategy to enhance its organizational capacity. The human resour

Saturday, February 1, 2020

Causes of Stomach Ulcer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Causes of Stomach Ulcer - Research Paper Example It is a common convention that people didn’t identify the features of stomach ulcer until it becomes acute. Early discovery and remedy can secure one from intensified pain even death.   The objective of this research is the examinations of distinctive factors of stomach ulcers, it symptoms, diagnose, and experimental method involved in the case studies. It is believed, H. pyloric and NSAIDs are the potential risk factor behind stomach ulcer;  it interrupts the  stomach’s ability of covering itself from the perilous effect of stomach acids. Therefore, the sensitive layer of a stomach becomes  approachable for the stomach  acid, consequences in stomach ulcer. Introduction The most dilated and important constituent of the digestive system is stomach. It is situated in the midst of the esophagus and small intestine, i.e. in the epigastric, umbilical and left hypochondriac regions of the abdomen. However, due to the property of exact position and shape of the stoma ch is undefined (A). The primary functions of the stomach include; storage of foods and to form chyme by breaking it down with the aid enzymatic effect of pepsin and peptidase. Stomach ulcers (SU) and stomach cancer are the most prevalent diseases of a stomach. Stomach ulcers also known as peptic ulcer, it is the disease of elder people specially men. SU is opening sores in the lining of upper gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and usually occur due to acidity. Gastric ulcers and duodenal ulcers are the two type of stomach ulcer. The difference between them lies in the affected area, i.e. location of the ulcer. Those ulcers which are present in a stomach are referred as gastric ulcers, whereas duodenal ulcers are present at the duodenum the beginning of a small intestine. Position of ulcer and its magnified cross section is depicted in the Figure 1. Statistician predicts more than 25 million will suffer through a peptic ulcer, and if it remains untreated. SU may become life threatening as well. SU affect around 4 million people every year, forty thousand undergoes surgery because of intensified pain and around six thousand people dies in United States of American only per annum (A). Figure (1): Depicting Gastric and Duodenal ulcer It believes that SU is principally caused by bacterial epidemic, i.e. H. Pylori infection, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and due to unknown reasons (B). Since, SU is reported to be life threatening diseases, if remain uncured. Therefore, studies concerning the timely diagnose; cure and causes behind ulcer are the demand of today. The intention of this research is to analyse causes of ulcer, its symptoms, diagnose and experimental  processes in case studies of SU. Symtoms of Stomach Ulcer Listed below are the most common symptoms of SU. 1. Loss of appetite 2. Frequent stomach burning 3. Loss of weight 4. Vague stomach pain, and 5. Bloody vomitting If one is suffering from any of the named symptoms, he/she must undergo proper medica l checks for early prognosis of SU. Early diagnoses of SU are pivotal because usually  SU affects the surrounding nerves, resulted in intensified pain and anemia. Further, it may cause bleeding, hemorrhages, and obstruction if GIT due to bulging of the affected area. Causes of Stomach Ulcer The fiction of tangy diets, worrying, stress, etc. as a potential factor behind SU proved counterfeit in 1982, when two doctors Barry Marshall and Robin Warren presented their Nobel Prize discovery. They uncovered Helicobacter pylori (H. Pylori) are the cause behind Ulcer. It is believed that nearly all ulcers are advanced due to H. Pylori, remaining are caused by NSAIDS (such as aspirin, and ibuprofen), and other reasons. However, NSAIDs causes an ulcer once in a moon but almost all

Friday, January 24, 2020

Use of Satire and Irony in The Widow of Ephesus and the poem True Love

Use of Satire and Irony in The Widow of Ephesus by Gaius Petronius and the poem â€Å"True Love† by Judith Viorst In the story The Widow of Ephesus by Gaius Petronius and the poem â€Å"True Love† by Judith Viorst, the authors portray love through the use of satire and irony. They do this though a series of ironic twists, humorous accounts, and life experiences. A satire is a literary work holding up human vices and follies to ridicule or scorn. In The Widow of Ephesus, the narrator recalls a tale of love in which an apparently faithful woman discredits her vows of marriage after her husband's death. She is tempted into this by a handsome young man, who attempts to save her life after she decides to entomb herself with her dead husband. This was not a very smart decision on her par...

Thursday, January 16, 2020

Ljb Company Essay

Introduction LJB Company has asked the accounting firm to evaluate their system of internal controls because of the plan to go public in the near future. The president wants to be aware of any new regulations required of his company if they go public. The current system of internal controls was explained to the accounting firm. Under SOX Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, all public traded U.S. corporations are required to maintain a sufficient system of internal controls. In order for this to be implemented all Corporate Executives and board of directors have to ensure that the controls are reliable and effective. With LJB Company incorporating the information from SOX act this will allow them reduce corporate fraud by making sure that all of the procedures for financial reporting is following in accordance to all guidelines. Internal Control Requirements In order for LJB Company to become a public trade, under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 requires a registered U.S. publicly traded company to have an independent audit committee as a part of its Board of Directors. My accounting firm recommends that since LJB is a small sized company in terms of its employees should reevaluate their costs versus the benefits of being a public traded company. If LJB decides to go public in the near future there will be some new internal control requirements. One of the factors of the internal control system is to ensure that the management is in control of its environment. Top management needs to make it clear and concise on what can and won’t be tolerated especially when it comes to the organizations values, mission statement and unethical behavior. The second factor of the internal control system is the company leading its control activities. The control activities are considered as the post that holds the company’s effort to address all risks that they may possibly face going public. One thing that the company may face is fraud and in order to reduce fraud, management has to create and build policies to address those specific risks. Strengths and Recommendations Since LJB Company is relatively small, they have an advantage over their competitors who are large companies. Being a small company due to its size of employees, one of the things they are doing right is being able to set expectations and implement those within the organization. As a smaller company, the accountant’s decision to switch to pre-numbered invoices and the purchase of an indelible ink machine was a good idea and investment. The pre-numbered invoices will prevent transactions from being recorded multiple times. With the internal control system this will require that the employees forward their source documents for the accounting entries. The indelible ink machine will help organize all of the accounting duties. We recommended that LJB Company purchase an indelible ink machine to print all employees and cut checks. With the indelible ink machine this will make it difficult for unauthorized users to endorse checks and be approved. This will cut down on fraud and theft within the company. Violations LJB Company is very susceptible to fraud due the weaknesses and threats presented in the day to day operations. The type of threats include: no human resource control, lack of cash control, and no duties defined for each individual. LJB Company is lacking in the separation of duties because the Treasurer and Controller functions is being done by the same person. Although these two duties are being performed by one person and stream lining the process this causes LJB to be susceptible to fraud and out of compliance with the SOX act requirements. Each of these duties should be performed two different individuals. LJB Company has lack of cash controls. The lack of cash control has to be watched because within LJB each employee has access to petty cash and that shouldn’t be the case. Access to petty cash should be restricted to authorized personnel only. Any time there is a disbursement from the petty cash there should be an original receipt and signature that received the reimbursement. LJB Company human resource controls are very limited. Within this company both the Accountant and President have to review and approve all of the new hires which is the process. If LJB had a proper human resource control there would be a function set in place for new hires by hiring someone with HR experience that has risk training. Having a more defined HR control resource this would allow the company to clearly define the different roles and responsibilities for each employee. Also with the HR resource all employees would go through background check, each employee be given their own username and password and be tracked with the activity report. Conclusion We believe that this assessment of the current controls of LJB Company and the recommendations provided will meet your expectations and allow your company to be a fully traded public company. To reinstate this problem; in order for LJB Company to become a public trade, under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 requires a registered U.S. publicly traded company to have an independent audit committee as a part of its Board of Directors. My accounting firm recommends that since LJB is a small sized company in terms of its employees should reevaluate their costs versus the benefits of being a public traded company. Works Cited Kimmel, Paul D.. Financial Accounting: Tools for Business Decision Making, 7th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 02/2013. .

Wednesday, January 8, 2020

Outline Of Alzheimer s Disease - 2765 Words

Shammai Topper Dr. Milton Schiffenbauer Research Topics in Biology GSB 493 CA Alzheimer’s disease Introduction Alzheimer’s disease is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that accounts for sixty to seventy percent of Dementia cases. It is characterized by the development of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, the loss of connection between neurons in the brain and the death of nerve cells. There are two types of Alzheimer’s Early on-set Alzheimer’s which occur from the ages of thirty to sixty is very rare and makes up less than five percent of the cases of Alzheimer’s . The second type is Late on-set Alzheimer’s which is the most common type and it is found in those of ages sixty and up. The progression of Alzheimer’s is a lengthy progress from the time of diagnosis the average life expectancy is three to nine years. In the early stages people have difficulty with short term memory loss as the disease progresses symptoms include difficulties with language, disorientation, mood swings, loss of motivation, loss of self-care and behavioral issues . As Alzheimer’s progresses a person slowly withdraws from family life and society due to the jumbled state of their memory. On a physical level the body’s physical function slowly degenerates and eventually leads to death. Causes The cause of Alzheimer’s is still mostly unknown except for one to five percent where genetic mutations have been identified as the cause. However there are many competing hypotheses that try toShow MoreRelatedAlzheimer s Disease : A Normal Part Of Aging And That It Isn t Fatal1315 Words   |  6 PagesOutline Introduction a. i. There are people around the world that still believe that Alzheimer’s is a normal part of aging and that it isn’t fatal. ii. 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